Division of Student Affairs

Punctuation

Punctuation is intended to clarify meaning and speed comprehension. Consistency is essential.

Periods

You already know when to use a period. Here are a few spots where you should not use one:

1. After chemical symbols
2. After most all-cap abbreviations; but academic degrees take periods
3. After items in a bulleted list that are not complete sentences
4. After abbreviations of units of measure, except when the unit could be mistaken for a word (e.g., hr, ft; but in.)
5. After digits in a phone number to differentiate area codes, prefixes, and line numbers.
   Example: 216.368.1959 not (216)368-1959 or 216-368-1959
   

Commas

Use a comma:

1. Before the conjunction in a compound sentence (a sentence with two or more independent clauses)
2. After a participial clause, an adverb, or an adverbial clause or phrase that comes before the main clause of a sentence. However, if the clause or phrase is short and no confusion results from omitting the comma, it may be omitted.
   Example: In 1999 he joined the faculty of the school of management.
3. Before the conjunction in a series
   Example: This summer's offerings consist of workshops on technical, commercial, and legal librarianship.
4. Before and after nonrestrictive (nonessential) descriptive or explanatory words, phrases, and clauses
   Example: The endowment, which is the first of its kind in the country, represents a giant step forward for the school.
5. To separate elements that might otherwise be confused
   Example: Soon after, he sold the house and moved away.
6. To set off an appositive
   Example: Her husband, John, accompanied her.
7. In city-state pairs and dates
   Example: He has lived in Cleveland, Tennessee, since 1976.
   Example: I met him on April 7, 1992, to find out why.
8. To separate digits in numbers greater than 999
   Examples: 1,000; 1,500,735
9. In a series of related adjectives modifying the same noun, except when those adjectives are commonly used together
   Example: She's a small, thin, gray cat.
   Example: A little old lady lives down the street.

Do not use a comma:

1. To set off a restrictive (or essential) clause
   Example: The ideas that you have expressed are basically sound.
2. Between the two parts of a sentence with a compound predicate (two or more verbs with the same subject) Example: He went to the University Ball and had a good time.
3. Before an opening parenthesis
   Example: When he left San Francisco (shortly after the earthquake), he headed for Chicago.
4. To separate month and year in dates that give only the month and year
   Example: In April 1982, he left for Europe.
5. To separate season and year.
   Example: He failed a course in fall 2000.

About Colons and Semicolons

The colon is used to mark a break in grammatical construction equivalent to that marked by a semicolon, but the colon emphasizes the content relation between the separated elements. It may be used to indicate a sequence in thought or to introduce an illustration or amplification.

However, the Chicago Manual advises that semicolons are often substituted in contemporary text.

Semicolons

A semicolon denotes a longer pause than that denoted by a comma. Use a semicolon:

1. Between coordinate clauses that are not joined by a conjunction
   Example: He went to the ball game on Saturday; I came to the office to work.
2. Between the members of a compound sentence when either one contains elements separated by commas
   Example: And now abideth faith, hope, charity, these three; but the greatest of these is charity.
3. In a series when one or more of the elements requires a comma
   Example: The wood, pulp, and paper industries; the consumers; and the environmentalists are at odds.
4. Between clauses joined by conjunctive adverbs, such as therefore, hence, so, however, moreover, and accordingly
   Examples: He ran out of money; therefore the job was delayed. He was on time; however, the interviewer refused to see him.

Colons

Use a colon:

1. To introduce a quotation of only one sentence when formality is desired or to introduce a quotation that begins a new paragraph. In general, use a comma instead of a colon before a quotation.
2. Instead of "to" in ratios, when necessary to save space. No space follows the colon.
   Example: The chemicals are mixed in a ratio of 4:1.
3. To introduce an example, list, or enumeration
4. Between clauses when one is either an illustration a restatement, or an amplification of the other
   Example: There have been three vice presidents since the administration came to power: This may account for the loss of credibility.

Dashes

Use dashes:

1. To emphasize a parenthetical expression
   Example: In the confusion-and 50 people all standing and waving their arms created a lot of confusion-I forgot to pick up my notes.
2. To denote an abrupt change in thought
   Example: I love his writing-but what an ego!
3. Before a statement made for effect or explanation
   Example: One feeling seems to pervade the breasts of all men-the love of life.
4. After a statement of particulars, and also after a summary of particulars, although here a colon might well be used
   Example: Reputation, money, friends-all were sacrificed.
5. Before an author's name at the end of a quotation. Here the dash has no space after it.
   Example: "The new dean will keep the school at the forefront of higher education." -John Jones, president

Apostrophes

Use an apostrophe:

1. To form the possessive of most nouns. Note that nouns used as descriptive modifiers do not necessarily require an apostrophe.
   Example: He needed to use the mens room.
2. With such phrases as a year's work, three weeks' effort, the day's total, a moment's thought
3. To indicate omission of letters
   Examples: can't, ne'er, fo'c's'le, rock'n'roll.
4. In abbreviations of years and decades. Note: Decades may be spelled out.
   Examples: '25, '67, the '60s, the '90s

In forming possessives of names that end with s or an s sound, use 's unless it would make the plural hard to pronounce (usually when the name is poly-syllabic): Mr. Lutz's methods, John Jones's home, Xerxes' reforms.

Do not use apostrophes to form the plurals of single letters, of figures, of acronyms or other abbreviations, or of words referred to as words.
Example: She was born in the 1960s.
Example: The RAs were not invited to the party.
Example: Mind your Ps and Qs.

Parentheses and Brackets

Use parentheses:

1. To enclose an irrelevant or incidental comment, information needed to clarify the regular part of the sentence
   Example: It behooves me to say that this staff member (who, by the way, was born in Cleveland) possesses great ability.
2. Numbers or letters that enumerate divisions of thought. Note that an opening and closing curve should appear around such a number or letter, not just a single curve.
   Example: The reasons for his retirement are (1) advanced age, (2) failing health, and (3) a desire to travel.

If any punctuation is required after the portion of the sentence that precedes the parenthetical matter, put it after the closing curve.
Example: He served the longest term of any president (15 years), becoming a familiar figure on campus.

If an entire sentence is enclosed in parentheses, the final punctuation should be inside the closing curve.
Example: (Additional information appears on page 10.)

If only the last words of the sentence are enclosed in parentheses, the period should be placed after the closing curve.
Example: He uses words improperly (for example, continuous and continual).

Use brackets:

1. To enclose words inserted in a direct quote by someone other than the author
   Example: "We have to work together to make this [the voluntarism project] successful," he said.
2. To enclose incidental material that itself is enclosed in a parenthetical passage
   Example: (He told us the reference [found on page 10 of the first edition] was incorrect.)

Quotation Marks

Use quotation marks:

1. To indicate a direct quotation. A quotation running longer than a few lines may also be indicated by indention and a reduction in type size. If the quotation is treated in this way, quotation marks are omitted. When quotation marks are used to indicate direct quotation, double quotes are used for primary quotations and single quotes for quotations within quotations. In a quotation of more than one paragraph, use opening quotation marks at the beginning of each paragraph and closing marks only at the end of the last paragraph.
   Example: "He said, 'I can't understand why you feel that way,' she explained."
2. To call attention to a new or unfamiliar word or phrase for which no definition is given. If the word is used frequently, omit the quotes after its first appearance.
   Example: The "new federalism" is a threat to colleges and universities across the country.
   Exception: No quotes are used when a coined word or phrase is introduced by so-called or known as, or when the syntax makes the coinage obvious.
   Example: The dean says his program is distinguished by a feature he calls elective opportunism.
3. To direct attention to technical or other words used in an unusual context
   Example: He served drinks on the "quarter deck" at the back of the house.
4. Around nicknames when used with the person's given name (Nicknames generally should not stand alone.)
   Example: C. "Red" Cramer was the University's historian.
5. Around titles of short compositions, including short poems, articles in periodicals, chapters in books, songs, papers, lectures, and unpublished theses
6. At the first use of a term when using words as words and when using letters as letters.
   Example: She doesn't know the meaning of the word "work."
   Exception: No quotation marks are used for academic letter grades.

Do not use quotation marks:

1. Around foreign words. (Use italics.)
   Note: Don't assume an unfamiliar word is foreign. Check the dictionary.
2. Around the names of ships. (Use italics.)
3. With slang or original words of your own invention. Omit or translate the slang.
4. In reference to articles, conferences, books, etc., when the title (full or abbreviated) is preceded by the word "on." Note that "on" is a vague choice indicating that the writer lacks full information.
   Example: He presented a paper on research methods in metallurgy.
   Example: He presented a paper criticizing research methods in metallurgy.
   Example: He presented a paper titled "Research Methods in Metallurgy."
5. Around words introduced by "so-called" or "known as."
   Example: My so-called mentor forgot I needed her letter of recommendation today.
   Example: This practice, known as waffling, is used by indecisive people everywhere.
6. When referring to letter grades given for academic course work.
   Examples: She received a grade of A. Acceptance into the program requires a B average.

Some guidelines for the positioning of quotation marks in relation to punctuation marks:

• Periods and commas always go inside the quotation marks. Other punctuation (dashes, semicolons, colons, question marks, and exclamation points) go inside the quotation marks only when they apply to the quoted material.
  Example: Do you think you can find the answer to the question, "Why is the sky blue?"
  Example: Do you know why he said, "I don't care?"
• Where quotations within quotations within quotations appear, double and single quotation marks alternate
  Example: "The question is, 'Does his position violate the "gentleman's 'post haste' agreement" so eloquently described by my colleague as "tommyrot?"'"

Following are a few points about quotations in stories such as news articles and student testimonials.

• In a partial quote, do not put quotation marks around ordinary words that the speaker used.
  Example: Going to school at Western Reserve College was a wonderful experience, she recalled.
• When attributing a quote that the speaker intended to be humorous, do not insult the reader by announcing that the quote is indeed a joke.
  Wrong: "Teachers are a little like actors. They have to have big egos to get up in front of a class every day," he quipped.
• Do not strain to find words to replace said. Said is adequate.
  Wrong: "We are making some progress," he summed up.

Hyphens

Use hyphens:

1. To join two or more separate words to form a single modifier that precedes the noun it modifies
   Examples: present-worth analysis; a health-related impact; an ill-advised act; a well-qualified candidate
   Note: Be sure that both words are being used as adjectives to modify a noun.
   Example: analysis of present worth
   Exception: No hyphen is used to join compound nouns that are commonly used together.
   Example: The little old lady lived in a shoe.
2. In compounds that indicate a combination of systems, forces, methods, or colors
   Examples: alpha-beta, blue-green
3. In spelled-out compound numbers from 21 to 99
   Examples: twenty-one, ninety-nine
4. In spelled-out fractions used as preceding adjectives or adverbs
   Examples: a one-fourth increase, a three-quarter-length coat
5. In spelled-out ordinal-number compounds
   Examples: twenty-seventh, four-hundredth, three-millionth
6. To join numbers to units of measurement when used as preceding modifiers. Avoid excessively long compounds of this sort.
   Examples: a 24,000-square-foot area (but: an area of 24,000 square feet); a fifty-year career (but: a career of fifty years)
7. To join whole numbers to fractions
   Examples: 3-3/4 inches; 11-15/16 inches
8. Dangling, in a series, to denote connection between the series and a following word modified by each of the elements in the series
   Example: one-, two-, and three-volume works
   Example: The department offers part- and full-tuition scholarships

Do not use hyphens:

1. In compound adjectives that contain adverb forms ending in "ly" unless the hyphen is needed for clarity
   Example: Three federally funded programs were cancelled.
   Example: The privately owned companies did not disclose financial details.
   Example: early-morning talk.
2. Instead of the word "to" in ranges, except to save space in nonnarrative copy or to show page-number spans in bibliographic references
   Example: The container can hold 300 to 500 pounds.
   Exception: When referring to academic years, use 1996-97.
3. In names of chemical compounds, even when used as adjectives that precede the nouns they modify
   Examples: a sodium chloride solution; a mixture containing sodium dihydrogen phosphate; the carbon dioxide process
4. In some noun compounds that are commonly used together
   Examples: high school student; junior college campus

We have compiled a list of compounds (hyphened, single words, or two separate words) that frequently cause disagreement.